chapter 21 vocabulary
biodegradable plastics- incorporate such materials as cornstarch that can be decomposed by microorganisms.
bioremediation- taps the great capacity of microorganisms to absorb, accumulate, and detoxify a variety of toxic compounds.
brownfields- have been abandoned or are not being used up to their potential because of real or suspected pollution.
composting- biological degradation or breakdown of organic matter under aerobic conditions.
demanufacturing- the disassembly and recycling of obsolete products.
e-waste- computers, cell phones, tvs, and printers.
energy recovery- waste-to-energy; the heat derived from incinerated refuse is a useful resource.
hazardous waste- any discarded material, liquid or solid, that contains substances known to be fatal, toxic, ignitable, corrosive, or explosive.
mass burn- to dump everything smaller than sofas and refrigerators into a giant furnace and burn as much as possible.
permanent retrievable storage- placing waste storage containers in a secure building, salt mine, or bedrock cavern where they can be inspected periodically and retrieved for repacking or for transfer if a better means of disposal is developed.
photodegradable plastics- break down when exposed to ultraviolet radiation.
recycling- the reprocessing of discarded materials into new, useful products.
refuse-derived fuel- in some plants, refuse is sorted as it comes in to remove unburnable or recyclable materials before combustion.
sanitary landfills- where solid waste disposal is regulated and controlled.
secure landfills- have many layers of clay, and various types of rock that protect the earth and dispose of the waste.
Superfund- a revolving pool designed to provide an immediate response to emergency situations that pose imminent hazards, and to clean up or remediate abandoned or inactive sites.
Toxic Release Inventory- requires 20,000 manufacturing facilities to report annually on releases of more than 300 waste stream- describes the steady flow of varied wastes that we all produce, from domestic garbage and yard wastes to industrial, commercial, and construction refuse.
chapter 21 notes
-Global waste production is a critical issue in environmental quality. Global waste production is growing, as nonbiodegradable materials grow in a waste stream
-Solid waste includes domestic, commercial, industrial, agricultural, and mining wastes that are primarily nontoxic. About 60% of N American domestic and industrial wastes are deposited landfills; the rest is incinerated or recycled
-old landfills are often leaky and messy, modern fills have impermeable liners added
-incinerators are our second most important method of waste disposal. Can destroy organics, can produce energy
-Recycling and composting are growing in N America and globally. Japan is the world leader in recycling, with about 60%of domestic waste being recycled
-Reusing, demanufacturing and reducing material consumption are important additional strategies for reducing waste stream.
-Hazardous materials cause health problems including birth defects, neurological disorders reduced resistance to infection and cancer. Environmental costs of hazardous and toxic waste and destruction of habitat.
-Hazardous materials are flammable, explosive, reactive. Disposal of solid and hazardous wastes have often been unsatisfactory. Thousands of abandoned waste sites still leak toxic materials into the environment.
-Wastes are taken from rich countries, extracted and moved to poor countries
chapter 20 notes
More efficient energy use and a greater reliance on renewable sources, could reduce or even eliminate our dependence on fossil fuels and nuclear energy.
There are many opportunities to conserve energy through greater efficiences in lighting, space and water heating, insulation, better industrial motors and controls, and simply turning off appliances when not in use.
Cogeneration of heat and electricity can double the efficiency of home or business energy use.
Transportation is one of our biggest energy uses as well as a great opportunity for conservation.
Hybrid gasoline-electric vehicles have the highest efficiency rating and lowest emissions of any commercially available option.
Solar energy is one of the most useful resources at our disposal.
Remote, large-scale solar arrays, the best way to transport energy may be to use it to generate hydrogen gas that can be shipped to markets via underground pipelines.
Fuel cells are devices that use electrochemical react6ions and semipermeable membranes to generate an electrical current.
Biomass has long been used as a fuel for heat and light.
Firewood, dung, and charcoal are the main forms of biomass used in most places.
Hydropower once produced most electricity in the world, but largely been replaces by fossil fuels.
Wind power is th fastest growing energy source in the world and offers a huge potential for clean, renewable power.
Wind could easily supply all the electricity we need and free us from the economic, social, and environmental problems associated with fossil fuels and nuclear power.
Nearly everywhere, the constant temperature of the earth a few meters below the surface can provide a useful heat sink for heating or cooling.
chapter 20 vocabulary
Energy efficiency- a measure of energy produced compared to energy comsumed
Hybrid gasoline electric vehicles- the highest efficiency rating and lowest emissions available in the US
Net energy yield- based on the total useful energy produced during the lifetime of an entire energy system minus the energy required to make useful energy available
Cogeneration- the simultaneous production of both electricity and steam or hot water in the same plant
Passive heat absorption- using natural materials or absorptive structures with no moving parts to simply gather and hold heat
Active solar energy- generally pump a heat absorbing fluid medium through a relatively small collector rather than passively collecting heat in a stationary medium
Green pricing- allows utilities to profit from conservation programs and charge premium prices for energy from renewable sources
Photovoltaic cells- capture solar energy and convert it directly to electrical current by separating electrons from their parent atoms
Fuel cell- devices that use ongoing electrochemical reactions to produce an electric current
Reformer- or converter that strips hydrogen from fuels such as natural gas
Biofuel- a mixture of gasoline and ethanol
Low head hydropower- can extract energy from a small headwater dam that cause much less damage than larger projects
Run of the river flow- submerged projects that are small enough not to impede navigation
Micro hydro generators- operate on small flow of streams, can generate power for a home
Geothermal energy- naturally warm water is used in electric power production, and other industrial means
Tidal station- like a hydropower dam, turbines spin as tide moves through them
Ocean thermal electric conversion(OTEC)- heat from sun warmed upper ocean layers is used to evaporate a working fluid
chapter 19 Notes
· The huge blackout of 2003 reminded us of how reliant we are on energy
· 86% or all commercial energy is generated by fossil fuel, 40% is petroleum, next is coal with 23% then natural gas with 22%
· The united states consumes twice as much energy per person as countries like Switzerland who have the same standard of living.
· Largest share of energy use in the states is for industry, transportation comes in second with 27% of energy supply
· Coal is dirty and dangerous fuel, however some new techniques reduce emissions and contaminants. Coal combustion is major source of acid precipitation
· Natural gas burns clean, produces less CO2 than coal. Russia and the Middle East have the worlds highest amounts of gas
· Chernobyl is the reason for most concern when it comes to nuclear power. People think the technology is too risky to pursue
· Major problems with nuclear power are where to store the waste and how to ensure that it remains safely contained for thousands of years
chapter 19 vocab
Work- the application of force through a distance
Energy- the capacity to do work
Power- the rate of flow of energy, or the rate at which work is done
Joule (J)- the amount of work done when a force of 1 newton is exerted over 1 meter or 1 amp per second flows through 1 ohm
Proven Reserves- coal that is mapped, measured, and shown to be economically recoverable
Black Lung Disease- inflammation and fibrosis caused by accumulation of coal dust in the lungs or airways
Secondary Recovery Techniques- methods for squeezing more oil up from an oil reservoir
Tar Sands- Liquid petroleum can be extracted from these sands with hot water, chemicals, or other stripping processes
Oil Shale- Fine grained sedimentary rock rich in solid organic material called kerogen. When heated it liquefies and oil can be extracted from the stone
Methane Hydrate- composed of small bubbles or individual molecules of natural gas trapped in a crystalline matrix of frozen water
Fuel Assembly- uranium pellets are stacked in hollow metal rods and bundled together
Nuclear Fission- splitting or releasing energy and more neutrons
Chain Reaction- once the fun starts its hard to stop
Control Rods- such as cadmium are inserted into spaces between fuel assemblies to shut down the fission reaction or are withdrawn to allow it to proceed
Breeder Reactor- produce fuel instead of consume it. Create fissionable plutonium and thorium isotopes from the abundant but stable forms of uranium
High-Level Waste Repository- place where intensely radioactive wastes are to be buried deep in the ground
Monitored, Retrievable Storage- alternative, holding wastes in underground facilities where was can be watched
Nuclear Fusion- energy is released when two smaller atomic nuclei fuse into one larger nucleus
Chapter 18 notes
Water pollution control laws have greatly reduced the worst water pollution in most industrialized countries; in many developing countries, water pollution is getting worse, but access to safe drinking water is improving slowly, especially in urban areas.
Water pollution- any physical, biological, or chemical change in water quality that adversely affects organisms or makes it unsuitable for other uses.
Major types of water pollution include infectious agents, oxygen demanding wastes, nutrients, inorganic salts, metals, acids and bases, organic chemicals, sediment, and thermal pollution
Eutrophication is caused by nutrient enrichment and warming
Oligotrophic lakes and streams are cold, and oxygen rich, but have low biological productivity
US Clean Water Act requires the EPA to monitor water quality and regulate discharge. Only 10 percent of water pollution in the US comes from point sources.
Groundwater can be contaminated by waste in recharge zones, through abandoned wells, and by buried waste. Leaking underground storage tanks release contaminants.
Ocean pollution comes from many sources, garbage, sewage, nutrients, and oil spills
Cheapest, best way to reduce water pollution is source reduction. Recycling, Land use planning.
Water legislation, Clean Water Act remains controversial; costs can be high and are largely borne by producers; it can be difficult to identify the best way to do things.
Chapter 18 Vocabulary
Point Source- factories, power plants, sewage treatment plants, underground coal mines and oil wells, they discharge pollution from specific locations.
Non Point Source- scattered and diffused, runoff from fields, golf courses, ect.
Atmospheric Deposition- nonpoint pollution, carried by air currents and precipitated into watersheds or directly onto surface waters as rain, snow or dry particles.
Coliform Bacteria- any of the many types that live in the colon or intestines of humans and other animals.
Biochemical Oxygen Demand (BOD)- The impact of wastes into water is expressed in terms of this. A standard test of the amount of dissolved oxygen consumed by aquatic microorganisms over a five day period.
Dissolved Oxygen (DO) Content- using oxygen electrodes, the content of water depends on factors other than pollution (temp. and aeration) usually more directly related to whether aquatic organisms survive
Oxygen Sag- The oxygen decline downstream.
Oligotrophic- rivers and lakes that have clear water and low biological productivity
Eutrophic- waters that are rich in organisms and organic materials.
Cultural Eutrophication- An increase in biological productivity and ecosystem succession caused by human activities
Red tide- Bloom of deadly aquatic microorganisms called dinoflagellates
Thermal Plume- The water drawn from a river or lake that is used to cool hot industrial machines and is reintroduced back into the ecosystem, they can disrupt the environment
Total Maximum Daily Loads (LMDL)- The amount of a particular pollutant that a water body can receive from both point and nonpoint sources.
Primary Treatment- the first step in municipal waste treatment. It physically sperates large solids from the waste stream.
Secondary Treatment- Biological degradation of the dissolved organic compounds; an aeration tank, or sewage lagoon
Tertiary Treatment- Removes plant nutrients, especially nitrates and phosphates from the secondary effluent.
Effluent Sewage- a hybrid between a traditional septic tank and a full sewer system.
Best Practicable Control Technology (BPT) and Best Available, Economically Achievable Technology (BAT)- set national goals to make all water fishable and capable of being swam in. For toxic substances and zero discharge for 126 priority toxic pollutants.
chapter 17 notes
Water shortages wand water stress affect at least a third of the worlds population. Water resources are expected to be a major source of regional and international conflict in coming decades.
Distribution of water around the globe depends mainly on climate factors, including high pressure zones and prevailing winds, and topography. Human activities such as deforestation, also affect regional water supplies.
The hydrologic cycle is the movement of water between the ocean, atmosphere, land, and living things. All water on land originates as evaporation, mostly from oceans, which produces rain and snow. Major water compartments involved in the hydrologic cycle include oceans; glaciers, ice, and snow; groundwater; lakes, rivers, and wetlands; and the atmosphere. Residence time in compartments ranges from thousands of years in the ocean to minutes or days in the atmosphere.
Aquifers are porous rock formations that hold water. Water enters aquifers through recharge zones. A confined aquifer is one whose saturated layers are capped (overlain) by impermeable rock layers.
Pumping water from an aquifer produces a cone of depression, often drying out shallower wells. Risks of overpumping aquifers- extracting water faster than it is recharged- include subsiding ground levels, sinkholes, and saltwater intrusion, as well as depletion of water supplies.
Water withdrawal refers to all water taken for use. Consumption refers to water lost to direct use, usually through evaporation or seepage in the ground. Degradation is water contamination by pollutants, salts, or heat, which reduces it utility for later uses.
Worldwide, two-thirds of water withdrawn is used for agriculture. Agriculture accounts for 85 percent of water consumption, mainly through evaporative losses and seepage from unlined canals. Improved irrigation methods are beginning to reduce some consumptive losses.
Industrial and domestic water uses are increasing, although not as fast as agricultural use. Consumption and degradation have fallen somewhat due to conservation and increased efficiency in households and industries.
Water stress occurs when consumption exceeds 20 percent of available, renewable water supplies. At least 45 countries have serious water stress and cannot supply minimum essential water needs for citizens.
Many strategies have been attempted to increase available water supplies. Desalination and water diversions are the principal methods that increase supplies in arid regions. Dams and reservoirs are controversial. They provide essential power and irrigation, but they also have great environmental, economic, and social costs, including ecosystem losses, displaced human populations, and water loss through evaporation.
Water conservation is often the cheapest and most effective way to increase water supplies. Watershed management involves coordinated planning to improve resource allocation and reduce water loss. Efficient household appliances, such as toilets, shower heads, and laundry machines, have greatly reduced per capita consumption in many cities. Dry landscaping is required in some southwestern communities of the United States. Drip irrigation and other agricultural practices can reduce irrigation demands. Water policy- laws regarding water rights and use- is a key factor in conservation.
chapter 17 vocab
Transpiration- transport and evaporation of water in the hydrologic cycle
Evaporation- process in which a liquid is changed to vapor at temperatures well below its boiling point
Sublimation- when water moves from solid to gaseous form without ever becoming a liquid
Saturation Point- when a volume or air contains as much water vapor as it can at a given temperature
Relative Humidity- the amount of water vapor in the air expressed as a percentage of the maximum amount that could be held at that particular point
Condensation- when the saturation concentration is exceeded, water molecules begin to aggregate
Dew Point- for a given amount of water vapor, the temperature at which condensation occurs
Condensation Nuclei- tiny particles, they float in the air and facilitate the process of condensation
Rain Shadow- the dry, leeward side of a mountain range that receives little precipitation
Residence Time- the time it takes a molecule spends circulating in the ocean before it evaporates and starts through the hydrologic cycle
Groundwater- after glaciers, it is the next largest reservoir of fresh water that is held in the ground
Infiltration- Precipitation that doesn’t evaporate back into the air or run off over the surface percolates through the sand and into fractures and spaces of permeable rocks
Zone of Aeration- Upper soil layers that hold both air and water
Water Table- the top of the zone of saturation, it is not flat but follows the topography of the area
Aquifers- porous layers of sand, gravel, or rock lying below the water table
Artesian- when a pressurized aquifer intersects the surface, or if it is penetrated by a pipe or conduit this well or spring results from which water gushes without being pumped
Recharge Zones- areas in which infiltration of water into an aquifer occurs
Discharge- the amount of water that passes a fixed point in a given amount of time
Renewable Water Supplies- made up or in general, surface funoff plus the infiltration into accessible freshwater aquifers
Withdrawal- the total amount of water taken from a lake, river or aquifer for any purpose
Consumption- the faction of withdrawn water that is lost in transmission, evaporation, absorption, chemical transformation, or otherwise made unavailable for other purposes as a result of human use
Degraded- polluted or heated so that it is unsuitable for other uses
Water Stress- a country in which consumption exceeds more than 20 percent of the available, renewable supply is considered vulnerable
Subsidence- settling of the surface above
Sinkholes- form when the roof of an underground channel or cavern collapses, creating a large surface crater
Saltwater Intrusion- consequence of aquifer depletion, saltwater intrudes into freshwater reservoirs
Desalination- reverse osmosis, turning salt water into freshwater
Watershed- catchment, is all the land drained by a stream or river
